Egyptian Vulture(Neophron percnopterus)
They are also known as white scavenger vulture or pharaoh's chicken. Egyptian vultures are small Old World vultures. Their adult plumage is white, and there are some black feathers on the wings and tail. The plumage dulls quickly due to the bird’s habit of stalking around a carcass, waiting its turn, on ground that is usually dusty, so before a molt the feathers are beige more than pure white. Individuals also occasionally cover themselves with soil that contains iron oxide, which makes their plumage a pinkish buff, giving them the name Schmutzgeier in German (dirt-vulture).
The smallest of Europe’s four vulture species, the Egyptian vulture is also the most endangered of these four. The adult Egyptian vulture measures 47–65 cm from the point of the beak to the extremity of the tail feathers. In the smaller N. p. ginginianus males are about 47–52 centimetres long while females are 52–55.5 cm long. The wingspan is about 2.7 times the body length. There are three widely recognised subspecies of the Egyptian vulture, although there is considerable gradation due to movement and intermixing of the populations. The nominate subspecies, N. p. percnopterus, has the largest range, occurring in southern Europe, northern Africa, the Middle East, Central Asia, and the north-west of India. Populations breeding in the temperate zone migrate south during winter. It has a dark grey bill.
The Indian subcontinent is the range of subspecies N. p. ginginianus, the smallest of the three subspecies, which is identifiable by a pale yellow bill. A small population that is found only in the eastern Canary Islands was found to be genetically distinct and identified as a new subspecies, N. p. majorensis in 2002.
Habitat
They occur in southern Europe, Asia and northern Africa. Isolated populations live in the Cape Verde and Canary Islands. Although these vultures are not true migrating birds, they fly between their resident and breeding areas more than most other vultures. This species generally inhabits arid open areas such as steppe, desert, cereal fields and pastures, but needs rocky sites for nesting. They are often found near where humans live, in or near towns, around slaughterhouses, rubbish dumps, and fishing ports.
Diet
Being carnivores and scavengers, Egyptian vultures eat carrion. They eat eggs as well, and use stones to break the shells. They feed on a range of food, including mammal faeces (including those of humans), insects in dung, carrion, vegetable matter, and sometimes small animals. When it joins other vulture species at a dead animal, it tends to stay on the periphery and waits until the larger species leave. Wild rabbits form a significant part of the diet of Spanish vultures. In the Iberian Peninsula, landfills are an important food source, with the vultures more likely to occupy territories close to landfill sites. Studies suggest that they feed on ungulate faeces to obtain carotenoid pigments responsible for their bright yellow and orange facial skin. The ability to assimilate carotenoid pigments may serve as a reliable signal of fitness.
Breeding
Egyptian vultures are monogamous, migrating between breeding seasons as a pair. They build a large nest and will constantly replenish it during the breeding season. It may include bits of old rags, hair, and fur. During the period of breeding the male will perform swooping displays for his mate, and during courtship the two of them engage in talon grappling. The breeding season varies a little between populations in different areas, but eggs are usually laid between March and May. Usually two eggs are laid, and they are incubated for a period of 39-45 days by both parents. The male and female both feed their chicks until they fledge 70 to 85 days after hatching. At about 4 months old, the chicks are independent. Once chicks have fledged, they can be seen flying in their home range with their parents. They leave their parents when migration from the breeding grounds starts. They reach maturity when they are 6 years old.
Population
According to the IUCN Red List, they are classed as Endangered(EN). In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 3,000-4,700 breeding pairs, equating to 6,000-9,400 mature individuals. Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 18,000-57,000 individuals, roughly equivalent to 12,000-38,000 mature individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed. The species is declining in virtually all parts of its range, apparently for a number of different reasons. In India, it has declined by > 90% in the last decade; European populations have declined by 50-79% over the last three generations. Western, eastern and southern African populations also appear to have declined significantly, as do Arabian populations.
Threats
This species faces a number of threats across its range. Disturbance, lead poisoning (from ammunition used in hunting game), direct and secondary poisoning, electrocution (by powerlines), collisions with wind turbines, reduced food availability and habitat change are currently impacting upon European populations , with juveniles showing higher declines and mainland populations showing higher rates of juvenile mortality than island populations. Illegal poisoning against carnivores seems to be the main threat operating on the breeding grounds in Spain and the Balkans. Declines in parts of Africa are likely to have been driven by loss of wild ungulate populations and, in some areas, overgrazing by livestock and improvements in slaughterhouse sanitation. Within the European Union, regulations introduced in 2002, controlling the disposal of animal carcasses, greatly reduced food availability, notably through the closure of traditional "muladares" in Spain and Portugal. However, recently passed regulations will permit the operation of feeding stations for scavengers and guidelines about how to operate them exist , and in eastern Europe dietary diversity has no effect on population sizes, but instead could affect territory size. Poisoning is a threat to the species, often through the use of poison baits targeted at terrestrial predators, and through the consumption of poisoned animals. Recent analyses from many countries including Bulgaria have highlighted potential contamination of Egyptian Vultures that may lead to increased mortality. Antibiotic residues present in the carcasses of intensively-farmed livestock may increase the susceptibility of nestlings to disease (e.g. avian pox has been reported as a cause of mortality in Bulgaria).
It appears that diclofenac, a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug often used for livestock, and which is fatal to Gyps spp. when ingested at livestock carcasses, is driving the recent rapid declines in India. NSAIDs are reportedly toxic to raptors, storks, cranes and owls, suggesting that vultures of other genera could be susceptible to its effects. It seems plausible that this species previously had less exposure to the toxin owing to competitive exclusion from carcasses by Gyps spp. vultures. In 2007, diclofenac was found to be on sale at a veterinary practice in Tanzania. In addition, it was reported that in Tanzania, a Brazilian manufacturer has been aggressively marketing the drug for veterinary purposes and exporting it to 15 African countries. This drug has recently been approved for veterinary use in Europe, and is commercially available in France and Spain, which is a major concern for the species. Mortality at power lines has been found to be particularly common on the Canary Islands and potentially risky in other regions of Spain and in Africa, with 17 individuals found killed by electrocution in Port Sudan, over 10 days in 2010, indicating a potentially serious problem that has persisted for decades and will continue to contribute to Egyptian Vulture population declines. In Morocco at least, the species is taken for use in traditional medicine, and it (like all African vultures) may have local commercial value as a traditional medicine throughout Africa. Competition for suitable nest sites with Griffon Vulture may reduce breeding success in the short-term.
Conservation
Conservation Actions Underway
CMS Appendix I and II. Occurs within a number of protected areas across its range. Monitoring programmes, supplementary feeding and campaigns against illegal use of poisons, including awareness-raising, are in place for a number of national populations. The veterinary drug diclofenac has now been banned by the Indian government. In 2007, a survey began to establish the extent of diclofenac use for veterinary purposes in Tanzania. Due to the recent legalisation of diclofenac for veterinary use in the EU, there is an active campaign against the use of diclofenac in the European Union. An International species action plan for the species was published in 2008. National species action plans are in place in France, Bulgaria and Italy, and the species is included in the Balkan Vulture Action Plan. Efforts are being taken to release captive-bred individuals in parts of Italy. In Spain, France, Italy, Bulgaria and Macedonia birds have been fitted with satellite-tags to study juvenile dispersion, migratory movements and wintering areas . Nest guarding schemes for pairs that are most threatened by poachers have been implemented in Italy and Bulgaria, where very small populations survive. Expeditions to study the limiting factors in the wintering areas and along the migration flyway have taken place together with local organisations in Mauritania, Senegal, Ethiopia, Sudan and Turkey . A training seminar was held in Ethiopia to help build capacity for conservation of the species on its African wintering grounds. A multi-species action plan for African-Eurasian vultures is underway, and an international Flyway Action Plan for the Central Asian and Balkan populations was initiated in 2015 in Bulgaria, encompassing the Balkans, Central Asia, Middle East, and East Africa. This Flyway Action Plan was published in 2017. The species is considered Critically Endangered at the national level in Uganda.
Conservation Actions Proposed
Start and maintain intensive cooperation with local stakeholders to ensure poison- and poaching-free zones at sites with high densities or congregations of the species throughout the breeding, migration and wintering range, alongside similar efforts for other threatened species. Build capacity in countries along the migration flyways and in the wintering areas. Protect nest sites where persecution is a problem. Research the causes and extent of current declines across the species's range. Insulate dangerous electricity pylons in areas where high mortality is recorded. Coordinate monitoring to assess trends throughout the range. Relax the European Union sanitary regulations in relation to carcass disposal. Establish supplementary feeding sites based on rigorous scientific knowledge and under adaptive and appropriate management. Raise awareness amongst pastoralists of the dangers of using diclofenac for livestock. Effectively reduce risks of poisoning through strict enforcement of poison-bait ban and education. Lobby for the banning of diclofenac for veterinary purposes throughout the species's range, and support the enforcement of this ban where it has been adopted. Where applicable, establish the impact of wind turbines, and lobby for effective impact assessments to be carried out prior to their construction. Where appropriate, guard nests to reduce disturbance. Confiscate illegally kept live birds and use them for the purposes of captive breeding and future restocking and reintroduction programmes. In key areas of the species's range, implement long-term and large-scale education and community involvement programmes. The Flyway Action Plan for the conservation of the Egyptian Vulture in Central Asia and the Balkans additionally highlighted: the need to improve detection methods and better understand the causes of poisoning and illegal killing; legislation and enforcement to mitigate illegal killing; raise awareness of illegal killing; mitigate electrocution and collisions with energy infrastructure; raise awareness amongst planners and developers of dangerous energy infrastructure; monitor breeding pairs, productivity and success rate; protect breeding sites and foraging habitats; and ensure a successful ex situ Egyptian Vulture endangered species programme.