Galapagos Penguin(Spheniscus mendiculus)
The average Galápagos penguin is 49–50 cm tall and weighs around 2.5–4.5 kg. It is the second smallest species of penguin, after the little penguin. Females are usually smaller than males. Galápagos penguins have a black head with a white border running from behind the eye, around the black ear coverts and chin, to join on the throat. The top of the beaks are black and fade into pink on the bottom. They have two black bands across the breast that connect to the back, the lower band extending down the flanks to the thigh.
Juveniles differ in having a wholly dark head, greyer on side and chin, and no breast band. Because of their warm environment, Galápagos penguins have developed techniques to stay cool. The feathers on their back, flippers, and head are black, and they have a white belly and a stripe looping from their eyes down to their neck and chin.
Habitat
These penguins inhabit the Galápagos Islands, off the western coast of Ecuador. The species is found along the coastlines of the Galápagos archipelago, but the highest concentration of the penguins is on Fernandina Island as well as the west coast of Isabela Island. These birds construct their nests in sheltered coastal areas. Galápagos penguins can be seen resting on both rocky and sandy beaches.
Diet
These birds are carnivores (piscivores), consuming small marine invertebrates as well as all small species of fish, including mullets, sardines, pilchards, and anchovies.
Breeding
These penguins have a monogamous mating system, forming lifelong pairs. Galápagos penguins mate all year round with a peak period, lasting from May to July. These birds typically build their nests in caves or volcanic-formed hollows, where the eggs can be protected from the sunlight. The female lays 1-2 eggs, which are incubated by both parents during 38-40 days. Meanwhile, if both eggs hatch, the parents will raise only a single chick. During the incubation period as well as after hatching, one of the parents stays with the eggs or hatchling, and the other leaves the nest to forage. For the first month of its life, the chick is cared by both parents, after which they leave the baby on its own, going to sea. Fledging occurs at about 60 days of age. Galápagos penguins are completely independent at 3-6 months old. Sexual maturity is reached at 4-6 years old for males and at 3-4 years for females.
Population
According to the IUCN Red List, they are classed Endangered(EN). Although the population is small, the exact size is unknown: it could have been as low as 700 individuals in 1983 or as high as 10,000 in 1971. The population in 2009 was likely between 1,800 and 4,700 individuals. The El Niño Southern Oscillation events in 1971-1972, 1982-1983 and 1997-1998 reduced the number of penguins to half of the number seen in the early 1970s. A head count of 1,009 Galápagos Penguins in 2007 was half the number counted in 1970 (2,020) and 1971 (2,099). The species declined by 60% between 1970 and 2004. Assuming that declines are continuing at this rate to the present day, this would equate to a reduction of 57% over the past three generations (31.2 years). A population reduction of more than 80% is predicted in the next 100 years, if the frequency of strong El Niño events is doubled from the current rate of 5% to 10% under future climate change scenarios. This equates to a reduction of up to 39% over the next three generations. Under the Current El Niño-scenario, based on the frequency of El Niño events recorded in the Galápagos between 1965 and 2004, a probability of extinction of approximately 30% within the next 100 years is estimated. The species's population is considered as decreasing.
Threats
In recent decades, this species has been influenced primarily by the effects of ENSO on the availability of shoaling fish. In 1982-83 and 1997-98, head counts declined by 77% and 65%, respectively. The annual penguin head count then increased, so the population may have been relatively stable. Then head counts further increased slightly until 2009, when the last complete count was done. Despite these increases, head counts were still 48% below the pre-El Niño head counts. Recovery from the 1982-1983 ENSO may have been slowed by the lower frequency of La Niña cold water events and above average surface water temperatures. Also, ENSO events may have a disproportionate impact on females, which could result in a biased sex ratio, making population recovery slower. Climate change may lead to an increase in the frequency of ENSO events in the future, which will also reduce the species's resilience to other threats, such as disease outbreaks, oil spills and predation by introduced predators. Locations of upwelling vary with climate variation. The Galápagos cold-water pool has been intensifying and expanding northward since 1982, which may shift the mean position of the Equatorial Undercurrent and would likely impact the penguins. Local fishing boats operating in inshore waters in the western part of the archipelago are documented as incidentally drowning Galápagos Penguins due to floating nets. Increasing demand for bait fish could dramatically increase inshore bait fisheries, which may exacerbate these problems. Contamination from oil spills poses another severe potential threat. Non-native predators like rats, cats, and dogs remain problems on many islands. Predation by one individual feral cat at one of the species's breeding sites resulted in adult mortality of 49% . Feral cats are also vectors of parasites, such as Toxoplasma gondii, which has recently been found in Galápagos Penguins with still unknown consequences. Mosquitoes arrived in the Galápagos islands in the 1980s as a result of human actions. Since they are vectors for avian malaria and West Nile Virus, and penguins in the genus Spheniscus are highly susceptible to these diseases, these insects represent a potential new threat for the Galápagos Penguin. The Plasmodium blood parasite has been found in Galápagos Penguins. Many of the above threats are potentially exacerbated by an ever-expanding human population and an increase in tourists visiting the islands.
Conservation
Conservation Actions Underway
The whole population of Galápagos Penguins is found within the Galápagos National Park and Galápagos Marine Reserve, which is managed by the Galápagos National Park Service and the authorities of the GMR. Access to breeding sites is strictly regulated, take of adults and/or eggs is prohibited and research is only possible with special permission. Introduced predators are to be controlled by the GNPS. On a few islands, introduced predators have been successfully eradicated. Research projects have been encouraged by the GNPS with the aim to protect this species by determining its marine needs and strengthening local capacity in scientific research, practical conservation, decision-making and sustainable management for this species. To create more high-quality breeding habitat for the penguins, artificial nests were built in 2010 and some are being used. Research on the value of these constructed lava nests and marine protected areas continues. To protect penguins, the President of Ecuador in February 2016 recommended that no-take (fishing) zones are to be established within the GMR at three sites where penguins breed (Elizabeth Bay, Bartolomé and Sombrero Chino islands and Caleta Iguana). iGalápagos.org engages people in taking pictures of penguins to determine when and where penguins are molting and breeding, in order to gain more information on the breeding cycle and to raise awareness for the precarious population status. The Galápagos Conservancy, together with the National Park, has developed an educational program for children in the islands.
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Conservation Actions Proposed
An urgent need remains for long-term monitoring of the population, improvements in fisheries management and increased protection levels within the Galápagos Marine Reserve in areas where penguins breed. Monitoring and minimizing penguin mortality from alien species at breeding sites is needed. Carry out monitoring of breeding sites and counting of individuals twice a year. Develop robust tools to determine population trends, recruitment, health and molting success. Assess feeding success of multi-species feeding assemblages and their importance for each species. Providing constructed nests in predator-free areas and monitoring reproductive success, or building artificial islands for breeding would likely help the population. Recommendations for conservation measures are detailed in Boersma et al. 2013, 2015, 2019. Further no-takes zones urgently need to be implemented. Develop outreach material for schools and visitors.