Ruppell's Griffon Vulture(Gyps rueppelli)
They are also known as the Ruppell's Vulture. These are large vultures, noticeably outsizing the closely related white-backed vulture, with which they often occur in the wild. Adults are 85-103 cm long, with a wingspan of 2.26-2.6 metres, and a weight that ranges from 6.4-9 kg. Both sexes look alike: mottled brown or black overall with a whitish-brown underbelly and thin, dirty-white fluff covering the head and neck. The base of the neck has a white collar, the eye is yellow or amber, the crop patch deep brown.
The head does not have feathers. This is an adaptation that occurred because of the Rüppell vulture's tendency to stick its head inside of its prey when eating. Without the adaptation, feeding would become extremely messy. Silent as a rule, they become vocal at their nest and when at a carcass, squealing a great deal. Rüppell's vultures commonly fly at altitudes as high as 6,000 m. The birds have a specialized variant of the haemoglobin alphaD subunit; this protein has a great affinity for oxygen, which allows the species to absorb oxygen efficiently despite the low partial pressure in the upper troposphere. A Rüppell's vulture was confirmed to have been ingested by a jet engine of an airplane flying over Abidjan, Ivory Coast on November 29, 1973 at an altitude of 11,300 m. Their name comes from the 19th century German zoologist and explorer Eduard Rüppell.
Habitat
The Rüppell’s vulture inhabits the Sahel region in central Africa (Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Sudan, Chad and others), living in sub-Saharan grassland and woodland. It often roots and breeds around cliffs and gorges.
Diet
Being carnivores and scavenger, these birds eat the carcasses of dead animals.
Breeding
Rüppell’s vultures are monogamous and form strong lifelong pair bonds. In vulture courtship, a pair will circle close together near to cliffs. Pairs perch next to each other for a long time, and together form colonies of as many as 1,000 breeding pairs. They build their large nests out of sticks and line them with grass and leaves. Females often steal sticks from other nests for the males to arrange. Depending upon the nesting site’s location, it may be used year on year or just once. Both parents take part in incubation, brooding, and feeding the chicks. A single egg is laid each year. Incubation is for 55 days. When the chick hatches, both its parents will feed it and look after it until it is about 150 days old, when it fledges. After fledging a chick remains dependent on its parents, reaching independence when the next breeding season comes. Until then, they learn how to seek and compete for food.
Population
According to the IUCN Red List, they are classed as Critically Endangered(CR). The estimated population is of the order of 11,000 pairs, comprising 3,000 pairs in Tanzania, 2,000 in Kenya where up to thousands concentrated at favoured sites, 2,000 in Ethiopia where it was said to be ‘common to locally abundant, 2,000 in Sudan where was the ‘most common vulture in the North’, and 2,000 for West Africa. This could indicate a population of 22,000 mature individuals and perhaps 30,000 individuals at the start of the 1990s. Subsequent extremely rapid population declines mean that the population is now likely to be much lower. New data suggests this species has experienced a very rapid population decline of 97% (range: 94-99%) over three generations (56 years). Extremely rapid declines have been reported in West Africa (although in Gambia it appears to be stable): during vehicle-based transect surveys in the Sahel zone of Mali and Niger in 2006 the species was not recorded, despite being common during equivalent surveys in the early 1970s. Significant declines appear to have occurred elsewhere in the range, including Sudan, Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania, but it may be stable in Ethiopia. It was documented an apparent decline of 52% over 15 years in the numbers of vultures present during the ungulate migration season, while in central Kenya an apparent decline of 69% was noted in the numbers of vultures between 2001 and 2003. Declines observed in the Masai Mara study may be representative of declines in other populations ranging across East Africa from Southern Ethiopia to Southern Tanzania, although this species may be doing slightly better than other species in the Masai Mara as its relative abundance at carcasses has increased.
Threats
The species faces similar threats to other African vultures, being susceptible to habitat conversion to agro-pastoral systems, loss of wild ungulates leading to a reduced availability of carrion, hunting for trade, persecution and poisoning. In East Africa, the primary issue is poisoning (particularly from the highly toxic pesticide carbofuran), which occurs primarily outside protected areas; the large range sizes of this puts them at significant risk as it means they inevitably spend considerable time outside protected areas. In addition, the ungulate wildlife populations on which this species relies have declined precipitously throughout East Africa, even in protected areas. In 2007, diclofenac, a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug often used for livestock, was ingested at livestock carcasses, and was found to be on sale at a veterinary practice in Tanzania. In addition, it was reported that in Tanzania, a Brazilian manufacturer has been aggressively marketing the drug for veterinary purposes and exporting it to 15 African countries. The West African population has been heavily exploited for trade, with birds commonly sold in fetish markets. It is one of the most commonly traded vultures in West and Central African markets, with numbers traded (1,128-1,692 individuals over a six year period in West Africa) probably representing a significant proportion of the regional population, with vultures being used in traditional medicine. The Dogon of central Mali climb the Hombori cliffs to take eggs and chicks of this species. The decline and possible extirpation in Nigeria appears to be entirely attributable to the trade in vulture parts for traditional juju practices. It is apparently also captured for international trade. In 2005, 30 birds were reportedly confiscated by the Italian authorities. Disturbance, especially from climbers, is a particular problem for this species. In Mali, the Hombori and Dyounde massifs are dotted with at least 47 climbing routes, on which expeditions take place every year, mainly during the species's breeding season. However, the impact of these activities is not known.
Conservation
Conservation and Research Actions Underway
CITES Appendix II. This species occurs in a number of protected areas across Africa. It was included in a CITES Significant Trade Review. In 2007, a survey began to establish the extent of diclofenac use for veterinary purposes in Tanzania, and in 2008 an awareness-raising campaign at a conference of the World Organisation for Animal Health in Senegal led to a resolution being adopted unanimously by more than 160 delegates to request Members to consider their national situation with the aim to seek measures to find solutions to the problems caused by the administration of diclofenac in livestock. At the 2014 Conference of the Parties of the Convention on Migratory Species, a set of guidelines to address poisoning was formally adopted. The production of a Multi-species Action plan for the conservation of Africa-Eurasian vultures is underway.
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Conservation and Research Actions Proposed
Establish legal protection for this species, particularly in West Africa. Monitor remaining populations including at colonies, perhaps through a pan-African monitoring mechanism. Conserve remaining populations within protected areas. Protect breeding colonies. Maintain remaining wild ungulate herds within protected areas. Raise awareness amongst pastoralists of the dangers of using poisons for pest control. Discourage the use of diclofenac for veterinary purposes in countries where this does not already take place. Lobby governments to outlaw the marketing and sale of diclofenac for veterinary purposes. A number of recommendations were produced at the 2012 Pan-Africa Vulture Summit: 1) Regulate import, manufacture and sale of poisons; 2) Legislate and enforce measures to prosecute those involved in illegal killing and trade in vulture species; 3) Protect and effectively manage breeding sites; 4) Ensure new energy infrastructure is 'vulture-friendly' and modify existing unsafe infrastructure; 5) Support activities to conserve vulture populations, including research and outreach activities.